Muslim history is the history of Muslim people. In the history of Islam the followers of the religion of Islam have impacted political history, economic history, and military history. The concept of the Islamic world is useful in observing the different periods of Islamic history; similarly useful is an understanding of the identification with a quasi-political community of believers, or ummah. The Islamic cultural identity, or identity as a member of the ummah, has influenced the history of the world. Islamic world territories haves included populations of people of other religions, such as Christian and Jews, and the levels have varied over the centuries.
Three centuries after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (High Middle Ages), the Arab Caliphates extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to Central Asia in the east. The subsequent empires of the Umayyads, Abbasids, Fatimids, Ghaznavids, Seljuqs, Safavids, Mughals, and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was to prove unable to develop to meet the challenges of the Early Modern period.
Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European Great powers. After the First World War, the territorial possessions of the Ottoman empire (a Central Powers member) were partitioned and divided into several nations under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. Since 1924, there has been no degree of an accepted claim as Caliph (tr., "successor") to the caliphate (tr.,"dominion of successor") [ed., This had been last claimed by the Ottomans].
Modern notions of the texts of Islam portrays the unification of religion and state ruled by a Caliph, and the aspiration of achieving such a contemporary polity has been powerful in the recent centuries of Islamic history; although the size of the Islamic world, and the ambitions of local rulers, meant it has been unrealized since the early Islamic city-states and universal imperial period beginnings. The common slogan al-islam dinun was dawlatun` (tr., Islam is a religion and a state) is neither a Koranic verse nor a quote from the hadith but a 19th century political Salafi slogan popularized in opposition to Western Egyptian influence[1] — a 19th century political origin being no problem for many other ideologies, but a handicap for a belief system predicated on following the scripture revealed in, and the ways of those who lived in, twelve centuries earlier.
Although affected by various other ideologies, such as communism, during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have intensified during the contemporary period (early 21st century). The fast-growing global interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world of the 21st century.[2]
History
Islamic State periods
Main article: Historiography of early Islam
According to the professor of Middle Eastern studies, Majid Khadduri, the Islamic state and Muslim's system of government evolved through various stages.[3]
The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less
arbitrarily assumed according to the point of view adopted. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These corresponds to the early period of the Middle Ages. The "Decentralization" period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period of the Middle Ages. The "Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s, the beginning with the early modern period, to the late 1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as the National period,
lasted from 1910s to the present day. Any hard and fast line drawn to
designate either the beginning or close of the period in question is
arbitrary.Islamic Origins
Pre-Islamic Arabia saw Arab people who lived in the Arabian Plate before the rise of Islam in the 630s. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of Middle Ages Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Mohammed belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba, within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of the religion of Islam. The Kaaba was an important Pagan shrine which also brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,[4] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).
Nakkaş Osman, Istanbul (1595)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Madina had signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace, which was broken when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were allies of the Muslims. In the year 630, Mecca was conquered by the Muslims. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.
City-states and Imperial period
Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate
After Muhammed died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan (644-656), Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These first Caliphs are known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam, and oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests, conquering Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an
was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies of it to
the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on,
thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.[5]
Afterwards, factions arose and the last two Rashidun caliphs were
murdered. The death of Uthman was followed by a civil war known as the First Fitna, and the succession to Ali ibn Abi Talib was disputed, leading to the split between the Sunni and Shia traditions in Islam, and later to competing caliphates when the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and Ali set up their own Fatimid caliphate.After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,[6] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.[7] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.[7] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother - Ziyad now adopted the name ibn Abi Sufyan - and appointed him governor at Basra. Muawiyah had arranged for his son Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear alleigance to Yazid, and he was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Shia's on the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[8] and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.[9]
The Umayyad Caliphate
Main articles: Umayyad Caliphate and Muslim conquests
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Arabs/Saracens/Up to the death of Mohammed, 632 Under the first three caliphs, 632–656 Ommiad Califs, 661-750 Boundary of the Califate of the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire |
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than five million square miles, making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[12] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever to exist. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031.
Caliphs at Damascus
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims charge that if anything, he was the instigator of the civil war, and weakened the Muslim nation and divided the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[13] and slander against the Prophet's family[14] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[15] One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, in which Muawiyah said he would not make his son his successor.
During the caliphate of Yazid, Muslims suffered several setbacks. In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.[16] From there Uqba marched on thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.[17] With cavalry numbering about 300, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers launched an attack and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.[18] This was a major setback for the Muslims, because of this they lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete.
The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.
The Great Mosque of Damascus was built by Al-Walid; completed by the time of the succession of Sulayman.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he was no longer alive to pose a threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, but rather he remained in Ramla in Palestine. Sulayman sent Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). After the intervention of Bulgaria on Byzantine side it ultimately proved to be unsuccessful. The siege of Constantinople failed to take the city and was sustaining heavy losses at the hands of allied Byzantine and Bulgarian forces. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.
Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, numerous civil wars began to break out in different parts of the empire.[21] Yazid pushed into the Caucasus and expanded the Caliphate's territory. He died in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother Yazid II, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik was ruling an empire with many different problems. He would, however, be effective in attending to these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and it saw a rebirth of reforms that were originated by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with natural local restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham put down both revolts. Despite Hisham's successes, the Abbasids continued to gain power, building power bases in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they would not prove strong enough to make a move yet. Some of them were caught, punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was in the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[22] Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue in his reign as Caliph. During the reign of his cousin al-Walid II, Yazid III spoke out against Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[23] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup. Following this up with a disbursement of funds from the treasury,[24] Yazid acceded to the Caliph and explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for six months, having various groups refuse allegiance to him and experiencing the rise of dissident movements, and died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, only ruled for a short time in 744 before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until 750 when he was killed. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and proceeded to assert his authority by force. However, anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. As such, Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. Marwan's death signalled the end of Umayyad fortunes in the East, and was followed by the mass-killing of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded an Umayyad dynasty there.
Universal period and decentralization
Islamic Golden Age
The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, with the conquest of the Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.[25] The ruling party had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the Ummayads, cultured by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim.[26][27] Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age".[28] This was also the case for commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution), and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution), which prospered, under the rule of Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 — 813), and their immediate successors.[29]
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During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare, sometimes by peaceful proselytism.[25] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had been conquered. In sub-Saharan West Africa, it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence later, in the 13th century.[25]
The Abbasids began to develop Islamic initiatives aimed at greater unity. Islamic faith and mosques separated by doctrine, history, and practice were driven to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".[32] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established and built. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. The achievement, however, was completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[33] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the Abbasids saw the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam, created and the divisions of the world beyond their control would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
In addition, the Caliphate under the Abbasid evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government) and the regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledge for unity of the state.[34] In early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology, thus Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.[35][36]
Golden Baghdad Abbasids
According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the discriminatory Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.
In Al-Mansur's time, there was an emergence of Persian scholarship. Also, there was a conversion of many non-Arabs to Islam. The Umayyads actively tried to discourage conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. The inclusiveness of the Abbasid regime, and that of al-Mansur, saw the expansion of Islam among its territory; in 750, roughly 8% of residents in the Caliphate were Muslims. This would double to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. The cosmopolitan city of Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign. The city attracted immigrants from all of Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia, and lands as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. It became the world's largest city. Al-Hadi was, like his father, very open to the people of his empire and allowed citizens to visit him in the palace at Baghdad to address him. As such, he was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the progressive moves of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was wreaked with numerous military conflicts.
Al-Amin, according to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced Internal rebellions. The rebellion by Tahir resulted in Baghdad being besieged. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage out. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his sceptre, seal and other signs of being caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings he should wait. Tahir noticed the boat. Al-Amin was thrown into the water, swam to shore, was captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al-Anbar Gate.
Regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught within a three-way rivalry of Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and the immigrant Turks.[37] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[38] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs belong to the Sunnite sect; the tenets of the Shiites are professed by the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Independent dynasties, but still under the influence of the theoretical leadership of Abbasid caliphs, appeared in the Muslim world, and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimate Muslim dynasties. The first of such dynasties was the Tahirid dynasty which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun in the eastern portions of the empire, in Khorasan, and was nominally subject to the Abbasid caliphate. Subsequent similar dynasties which were independent yet recognized by the Abbasid caliph were the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.High Baghdad Abbasids
On Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun grew the Abbasid empire somewhat during his reign and dealt with rebellions.[39] Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful in the state, contrary to Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents.
Al-Ma'mun directed his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. Although Al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna. The Mihna was the Abbasid inquisitions.[40] The Ulama emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions, which was initiated in 833, only four months before he died. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of Al-Ma'mun and Sunnism, as a religion of legalism, became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced.
In the time Al-Ma'mun as Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantines border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign and died on the way while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantine Greeks is marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[41] His reign also saw alchemy developed and the pioneers of the science. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza looking for knowledge and treasure. He entered the pyramid by tunneling into the Great Pyramid near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded not by his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun, but by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim.
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He dealt with Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph, as faced his predecessor, was the uprising of Babak Khorramdin, but overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory of this reign. The Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against a number of Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim launched a well planned response. Al-Afshin met and defeated Theophilus at the Battle of Anzen. On his return home, he became aware of a serious military commanders conspiracy which lead to reliance of this caliph and his successors upon Turkish commanders and the ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly vanished during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
In Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tributes and oversight functions. The independence of the Tahirids contributed to the decline of Abbasid supremacy in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed the footstep of his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessors support for the islamic sect of Mu'tazila, applying his brutal military methods for torture. Also of note, the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim, and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.
Al-Wathiq succeeded his father, Al-Mutasim. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. He, using a famous sword, personally joined in the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups continued to widen, with the Turkish forces gaining power. He also secured a captive exchange of with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talents and is reputed to have composed over one-hundred songs.
Al-Muntasir succeeded to the throne of the Caliphate on that same day Al-Mutawakkil was killed with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the crime. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. In his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir's reign ended with his death of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select al-Muntasir successor. and elected Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad, displeased at the choice, attacked. Baghdad had yet to learn that the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but had passed into other hands. After the Muslim campaign against the Christians which were unfortunate for the caliphate, people blamed the Turks that had brought disaster on the faith and murdered their Caliphs; setting up others at their pleasure. After the Turks besiege Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by the order of Al-Mu'tazz. Al-Mu'tazz was placed upon the throne by the Turks, the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
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Al-Mu'tadid ably administer the Caliphate. Egypt returned to is allegiance and Mesopotamia was for the time restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'a community, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate was threatened by various dangers, such as the Carmathians, which were overcome. Hostilities prevailed more or less with the Byzantines, who were not slow to take advantage of the difficulties of the Caliphate. War was kept up with various fortune on both sides. Upon his death, the vazir chose Al-Muqtadir as the next Caliph. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant record of his thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall, or on the assassination, of another. The long reign of this Caliph brought the Empire to the lowest ebb. The stand made during the last three reigns to stay the downward progress at last came to an end and the Abbasid continued its decline. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul had thrown off its dependence, and the Greeks could make raids at pleasure on the helpless border. In the East, thought, there still was kept up a formal recognition of the Caliphate, even by those who virtually claimed their independence.
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[43] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to the disorder of the city of Baghdad. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals in the capital. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates. On the death of al-Muqtadir, the courtiers chose the late Caliph's brother al-Qahir; but he was an even worse than al-Muqtadir. Refusing to abdicate, his eyes were blinded, and he was cast into prison.
Ar-Radi, son of al-Muqtadir, ascended to the position of Calip but saw only a succession of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the mere tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (Amir al-Umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was conjoined with the Caliph's in the public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, carried things and set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly spoken of as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies to discuss with philosophers and discuss the questions of the day, or to take counsel on the affairs of State; the last to distribute largess among the needy, or to interpose to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.
In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, the first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years, the last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince" by the Caliph.
Also in the 930s, the founders of the Būyid confederation were ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the 'Abbāsid Caliphate. While they accepted the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad, the Būyid rulers assumed effective control of the state. The Būyid confederation had large territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq, which submitted in 945, the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this, however, the Būyids went into a slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.[44]
Middle Baghdad Abbasids
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Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence as a ruler while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa[45] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundering Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was however crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a Seljuq western territories civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East by certain rebel members, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays. Zengi was beaten and fled. The Caliph pursued him to Mosul, and besieged him there but without success for three months. Mas'ud supported Zengi, besieged by al-Mustarshid's troops in Mosul. It was nonetheless a milestone in the revival of the military power of the caliphate.
After the siege of Damascus (1134),[46] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid launched a military campaign against sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.[47] His son, Al-Rashid failed at independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultan. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan's power restored, a council was held, the Caliph deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks afforded al-Muqtafi opportunity of not only maintaining his authority in Baghdad, but also extending it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. The Caliph, as the Crusade was raging furiously, successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph despatched men in response to an appeal Zengi, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, had any enthusiasm in war against Crusaders. The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw the Fatimid dynasty extinguished (lasting over 260 years) by Saladin and thus the spiritual supremacy of the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi's reign was during the time that Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared his allegiance to the Abbasids. An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His long reign of forty-seven years is chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which so soon brought his own dynasty to an end. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph. Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger of the Mongols, rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.[48] In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.[49] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[50]
Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan which swept through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed an Abbasid Caliph in Cairo, but they were symbolic as the late Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad were.
Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to shortly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.
Fatimid Empire
Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh
"Islamic Cairo" building was named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Gamali.
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[51] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer the surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed over into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[52] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than on heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[53] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was two parts. It used to be in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[54]
Fatimid caliphs
During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the pulpits of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Abbasid Caliphate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of information gatherers helped update Al Mahdi on each development which took place in North Africa.
After establishing the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty, claims to genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail, Al Mahdi began his conquest by establishing his headquarters at Salamiyah and moving towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule, following the success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi, was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
Berbers and Iberian Umayyads
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. There are some later Arabic and Christian sources that present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[55]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power in the, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Córdoba(912-961).[56] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[57] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[58] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[59]
The rule of the Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[60] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms would then weaken the power of the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas such as that of Seville would be forced to enter into alliances with the Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[61]
Emirs of Córdoba
Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave, a freedman) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure if he would be welcomed or not in that far-flung province of the empire. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders – Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga.
During his brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support quickly. News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus saw two contingents meeting at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). After a long and difficult fight, Rahman I was victorious with his enemies escaping the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba. A counterattack was mounted but negotiations were ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.[62] One final act had to be performed, however: al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planne to depose the Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, with most of the Abbasid army killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off. Their heads were preserved in salt, and identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca.Rahman I continued to put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Near the end of his life, it is said that Abd al-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and would sequester himself to his palaces.
Abd ar-Rahman II, the son of Hakam I, succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman III repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I and succeeded by his son Mundhir I. Mundhir I, during the reign of his father, commanded the military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, Mundhir I inherited the throne of Córdoba. During the two years of reign Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. Mundhir I died in 888 at Bobastro and his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi succeeded him. Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. Umawi's government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families that did not accept his authority. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.
Caliphs at Córdoba
Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.
The Crusades
List of Crusades
Early period
· First Crusade 1095–1099
· Second Crusade 1147–1149
· Third Crusade 1187–1192
Low Period
· Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
· Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
· Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Late period
· Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
· Eighth Crusade 1270
· Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not in a serious manner threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended the Fatimid rule of Egypt in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin (see Ayyubids below) reconquered most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.
In the Third Crusade armies from Europe were unsuccessful in attempts to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered on for several decades, and there were further crusades with the intent to recapture the holy city and other Near East lands. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage existing Islamic caliphates; preventing them from further expansion into Christendom and open to the Mamluks and the Mongols.
Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and went to conquest the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling included Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After the death of Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself as Sultan in 1200. In the 1230s, the Ayyubid rulers of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by a slave regiments. A number of attempts by the rulers of Syria, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo, to recover it failed. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.
Mongol invasions
The Islamic Caliphate after the Crusades saw the Mongol invasions from the East of the 13th century, from which some historians believe the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered, and which mark the end of the Islamic Golden Age. The wave of Mongol invasions, which had commenced in the early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan, marked a violent end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 and, as in other regions conquered later, resulted in a huge loss of civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.
With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol sights were set upon the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell afterwards, in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army was defeated by the superior Mongol army, but the Mongol invaders were finally held by the Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260.
Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam,[63] as the Mongol elite favored Islam over other religions.[64][65] The Mongols remained in power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east and over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new invasion of the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. It began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found had many branches of Islam, including the Mughals of India.
The Mamluks
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and a dynasty — the Mamluks — was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and wrested control of the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest period of time between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[66] The Mamluks saw a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored numerous religious buildings, including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects took place in the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo survive until today, particularly in the district of Old Cairo.
Bahri Sultans
The dynasty ruling over Egypt had been replaced in 1250 by a man who was born a prince and struggled as a Mamluks slave, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain Jaloot). This had been done through the marriage between Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub, with the Mamluk general Aybak. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After the assassination of Aybak, and the succession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. This signalled an adverse shift in fortunes for the Mongols, who were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[31] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant.
Burji Sultans
The global Muslim population had climbed to about 8 per cent as against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.
African region
Main article: Islam in Africa
The first continent outside of Arabia to have an Islamic history was Africa, particularly Abyssinia (modern day Ethiopia via modern day Eritrea).Maghreb region
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history, with a number being of historical importance.
The Idrisid dynasty were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.
The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.
The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.
East African region
Islam in East Africa can be dated back to the founding of the religion and the beginning with the hijra; in 615, when a group of Muslims were counseled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca and travel to Abyssinia (an act known as the First migration to Abyssinia), which was ruled by, in Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king named al-Najashi (Negus, King of Abyssinia). The people were angered with the current ruler, so they sought to over throw them and they did. Moreover, Islamic tradition states that the first muezzin Bilal al-Habeshi, a companions of Muhammad, was from Abyssinia (Habasha).[69]There were Islamic governments in Tanzania. The people of Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to East Africa. Islam came to East Africa through trade routes.[70] The African peoples that lived along these routes became converts due to the close contact they had with Arab traders in areas like Tabora. They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs. In pre-colonial East Africa, the structure of Islamic authority was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). Their base was in Zanzibar. These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in East Africa at this time; before territorial boundaries were established. This is because the majority of Muslims lived within the sphere of influence of the Sultanate in Zanzibar. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.[71]
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